1 00:00:10,240 --> 00:00:13,090 KRISTEN: So with that, I am going 2 00:00:13,090 --> 00:00:17,980 to turn it off to our first keynote speaker, Kris Clark. 3 00:00:17,980 --> 00:00:21,130 She also works at Lincoln Laboratory with me, 4 00:00:21,130 --> 00:00:23,210 but in a completely different field. 5 00:00:23,210 --> 00:00:26,860 She's going to talk about space cameras. 6 00:00:26,860 --> 00:00:29,405 KRIS CLARK: So as Kristen said-- I'm also Kristen, 7 00:00:29,405 --> 00:00:34,280 but I go by Kris-- I work at Lincoln Laboratory. 8 00:00:34,280 --> 00:00:36,880 And I want to say that this is an amazing program. 9 00:00:36,880 --> 00:00:40,120 So first, how many of you have ever done a program like this? 10 00:00:40,120 --> 00:00:43,140 Like an engineering kind of thing for girls. 11 00:00:43,140 --> 00:00:44,040 Come on, way up. 12 00:00:44,040 --> 00:00:45,850 I can't see that. 13 00:00:45,850 --> 00:00:46,960 OK, cool. 14 00:00:46,960 --> 00:00:50,060 Now, how many of you are freshmen? 15 00:00:50,060 --> 00:00:51,730 Sophomores? 16 00:00:51,730 --> 00:00:53,130 Juniors? 17 00:00:53,130 --> 00:00:54,770 Seniors? 18 00:00:54,770 --> 00:00:55,770 All right, no seniors. 19 00:00:55,770 --> 00:00:58,110 They're all busy doing college applications. 20 00:00:58,110 --> 00:01:00,060 All right, so let's get started. 21 00:01:00,060 --> 00:01:02,644 So today, I'm going to talk a little bit about me, 22 00:01:02,644 --> 00:01:04,060 just because we're kind of looking 23 00:01:04,060 --> 00:01:06,935 at what makes an engineer. 24 00:01:06,935 --> 00:01:08,060 It can be all over the map. 25 00:01:08,060 --> 00:01:11,300 So there is no one key picture of what an engineer looks like, 26 00:01:11,300 --> 00:01:13,067 or what a scientist looks like. 27 00:01:13,067 --> 00:01:15,650 Then we'll go into a little bit about just really basic stuff, 28 00:01:15,650 --> 00:01:16,566 like what is a camera? 29 00:01:16,566 --> 00:01:18,780 What are the key components of a camera? 30 00:01:18,780 --> 00:01:21,239 And then what can cameras do? 31 00:01:21,239 --> 00:01:23,030 And then specifically I'm going to tell you 32 00:01:23,030 --> 00:01:25,000 about the program I'm currently working on. 33 00:01:25,000 --> 00:01:28,270 It is a space camera looking for as exoplanets. 34 00:01:28,270 --> 00:01:31,700 So I'll tell you a little bit about the specifics of that, 35 00:01:31,700 --> 00:01:33,390 and I have some kind of cool animation 36 00:01:33,390 --> 00:01:35,515 that they did for me to show you the orbit, and all 37 00:01:35,515 --> 00:01:37,534 that sort of stuff. 38 00:01:37,534 --> 00:01:38,700 So stop me, raise your hand. 39 00:01:38,700 --> 00:01:41,158 Questions, you don't have to wait till the end or anything. 40 00:01:41,158 --> 00:01:42,930 So just speak up. 41 00:01:42,930 --> 00:01:44,390 Raise your hand. 42 00:01:44,390 --> 00:01:46,220 Get my attention. 43 00:01:46,220 --> 00:01:47,660 So how I got here. 44 00:01:47,660 --> 00:01:49,580 So you guys all know, this is Massachusetts. 45 00:01:49,580 --> 00:01:50,890 I did not stray very far. 46 00:01:50,890 --> 00:01:53,380 I was born in Worcester in the center of the state. 47 00:01:53,380 --> 00:01:56,860 I moved to Billerica, Mass when I was two with my family. 48 00:01:56,860 --> 00:02:00,370 I went to Billerica Memorial High School. 49 00:02:00,370 --> 00:02:04,167 Then I went to MIT for undergraduate, then to Tufts 50 00:02:04,167 --> 00:02:05,000 for graduate school. 51 00:02:05,000 --> 00:02:06,166 So it's kind of this circle. 52 00:02:06,166 --> 00:02:08,120 I never went more than 50 miles from home. 53 00:02:08,120 --> 00:02:10,030 And ended up at Lincoln Laboratory. 54 00:02:10,030 --> 00:02:11,800 I've been there for the last 12 years 55 00:02:11,800 --> 00:02:16,110 working on space-based optical systems. 56 00:02:16,110 --> 00:02:17,830 So I have three brothers. 57 00:02:17,830 --> 00:02:19,380 Two of them are also techie geeks. 58 00:02:19,380 --> 00:02:21,870 One is a lawyer, so he's kind of the odd man out. 59 00:02:21,870 --> 00:02:25,487 But the only time really that I left the country 60 00:02:25,487 --> 00:02:27,820 was to be an exchange student for a year in high school. 61 00:02:27,820 --> 00:02:29,778 And other than that, stayed very close to home. 62 00:02:29,778 --> 00:02:33,230 So there's tons of opportunities right in your own backyard 63 00:02:33,230 --> 00:02:36,610 for being an engineer. 64 00:02:36,610 --> 00:02:39,360 All right, so now I need some audience participation. 65 00:02:39,360 --> 00:02:40,990 What is a camera? 66 00:02:40,990 --> 00:02:42,480 Anyone want to take a stab at just 67 00:02:42,480 --> 00:02:44,330 kind of a general definition of a camera. 68 00:02:47,370 --> 00:02:50,400 Or even just if you're not really sure how to define it, 69 00:02:50,400 --> 00:02:52,250 maybe just describe what it does. 70 00:02:52,250 --> 00:02:55,800 That's a good way to start. 71 00:02:55,800 --> 00:02:57,782 AUDIENCE: A device that takes photos. 72 00:02:57,782 --> 00:02:58,740 KRIS CLARK: Good, good. 73 00:02:58,740 --> 00:02:59,890 Device that take photos. 74 00:02:59,890 --> 00:03:01,200 Anybody want to add to that? 75 00:03:03,762 --> 00:03:05,220 Like a key piece of information you 76 00:03:05,220 --> 00:03:08,080 can think might improve the definition 77 00:03:08,080 --> 00:03:11,591 for if you needed to describe a camera to somebody. 78 00:03:11,591 --> 00:03:14,279 AUDIENCE: Light really affects how the photos [INAUDIBLE]. 79 00:03:14,279 --> 00:03:16,320 KRIS CLARK: Light affects how the photo is taken. 80 00:03:16,320 --> 00:03:17,236 Is that what you said? 81 00:03:17,236 --> 00:03:19,251 Yep, so light is very key. 82 00:03:19,251 --> 00:03:21,250 That's pretty much what we're trying to collect. 83 00:03:21,250 --> 00:03:23,041 Anybody else want to add to the definition? 84 00:03:25,750 --> 00:03:27,960 Let's see, this is kind of a generic definition. 85 00:03:27,960 --> 00:03:30,170 A camera is an optical instrument for recording 86 00:03:30,170 --> 00:03:31,630 or capturing images. 87 00:03:31,630 --> 00:03:33,550 So if you look at that definition, 88 00:03:33,550 --> 00:03:35,680 really there are two basic components 89 00:03:35,680 --> 00:03:36,870 you need to a camera. 90 00:03:36,870 --> 00:03:40,090 Does anyone want to take a guess at one or both of them? 91 00:03:40,090 --> 00:03:41,840 What's the first thing you have to do when 92 00:03:41,840 --> 00:03:42,964 you want to take a picture? 93 00:03:47,190 --> 00:03:49,790 All right, I'll give you this one. 94 00:03:49,790 --> 00:03:51,770 Somehow you have to collect the light, right? 95 00:03:51,770 --> 00:03:54,160 So focus your energy. 96 00:03:54,160 --> 00:03:55,260 It can be visible light. 97 00:03:55,260 --> 00:03:58,040 We'll talk a little bit more about other types of energy. 98 00:03:58,040 --> 00:04:00,160 But once you have that light where you want it, 99 00:04:00,160 --> 00:04:01,450 what's the next step? 100 00:04:01,450 --> 00:04:05,881 It's there, but what do you have to do to get a picture? 101 00:04:05,881 --> 00:04:08,120 AUDIENCE: Have something record it? 102 00:04:08,120 --> 00:04:09,160 KRIS CLARK: Exactly. 103 00:04:09,160 --> 00:04:10,620 So you need a detector. 104 00:04:10,620 --> 00:04:12,200 So basically two components. 105 00:04:12,200 --> 00:04:14,366 You want to get the light for whatever you're trying 106 00:04:14,366 --> 00:04:16,000 to image to a particular place. 107 00:04:16,000 --> 00:04:18,390 And then you need some sort of device-- old school, 108 00:04:18,390 --> 00:04:19,890 if you're old school like me, you've 109 00:04:19,890 --> 00:04:21,042 seen film cameras before. 110 00:04:21,042 --> 00:04:22,250 You took some of those apart. 111 00:04:22,250 --> 00:04:23,820 So film was the detector. 112 00:04:23,820 --> 00:04:25,870 Now, it's much more the digital age. 113 00:04:25,870 --> 00:04:28,600 You've got CCDs and all sorts of digital imagers. 114 00:04:28,600 --> 00:04:30,175 So those are basically the two things 115 00:04:30,175 --> 00:04:31,550 that you have to do for a camera. 116 00:04:31,550 --> 00:04:33,810 And then from there, sky's the limit. 117 00:04:33,810 --> 00:04:36,190 There are so many different types that you can do. 118 00:04:36,190 --> 00:04:37,960 So I thought I'd start really simply. 119 00:04:37,960 --> 00:04:40,670 Has Anyone ever heard of a pinhole camera? 120 00:04:40,670 --> 00:04:43,136 Anyone ever built a pinhole camera? 121 00:04:43,136 --> 00:04:44,760 All right, so what's the basic premise? 122 00:04:44,760 --> 00:04:47,950 Do you remember what the idea is behind a pinhole camera? 123 00:04:47,950 --> 00:04:52,540 AUDIENCE: Yeah, you just put like little holes in a box. 124 00:04:52,540 --> 00:04:53,360 KRIS CLARK: Yep. 125 00:04:53,360 --> 00:04:55,610 So you have-- let's see if I can get my little pointer 126 00:04:55,610 --> 00:04:58,710 thingy to work-- a tiny, tiny hole in a dark box. 127 00:04:58,710 --> 00:05:00,660 So there's not even a lens in this camera. 128 00:05:00,660 --> 00:05:03,310 But that tiny, tiny, tiny hole is the first half 129 00:05:03,310 --> 00:05:04,560 of what you need for a camera. 130 00:05:04,560 --> 00:05:06,210 Something to collect the light. 131 00:05:06,210 --> 00:05:09,190 Now the problem with a pinhole camera, the tiny, tiny hole 132 00:05:09,190 --> 00:05:10,790 can't collect much light. 133 00:05:10,790 --> 00:05:14,240 But it does limit very specifically 134 00:05:14,240 --> 00:05:16,800 that light from a particular point in what you're looking at 135 00:05:16,800 --> 00:05:22,070 can only get to a very specific point on the inside of the box. 136 00:05:22,070 --> 00:05:25,270 And so basically, that's your limiting light collection, 137 00:05:25,270 --> 00:05:28,086 and the back surface of the box is your image plane. 138 00:05:28,086 --> 00:05:29,460 Now, you can't really capture it, 139 00:05:29,460 --> 00:05:31,090 because it's just the back of a box. 140 00:05:31,090 --> 00:05:33,750 But you can look at it, and it's there if you want to see it. 141 00:05:33,750 --> 00:05:36,504 So very, very primitive. 142 00:05:36,504 --> 00:05:38,920 So if we get into some things that you guys see every day, 143 00:05:38,920 --> 00:05:40,710 and you probably don't really think a whole lot 144 00:05:40,710 --> 00:05:41,670 about how they work. 145 00:05:41,670 --> 00:05:45,560 But who would have guessed how many components 146 00:05:45,560 --> 00:05:47,640 are in that little tiny phone camera? 147 00:05:47,640 --> 00:05:49,510 That's a lot of stuff. 148 00:05:49,510 --> 00:05:51,570 There's like six lenses before you even 149 00:05:51,570 --> 00:05:53,030 get to your detector image. 150 00:05:53,030 --> 00:05:55,030 So lots of lenses are used. 151 00:05:55,030 --> 00:05:57,700 And we won't talk specifically about lens design. 152 00:05:57,700 --> 00:06:00,010 But basically, the fancier cameras 153 00:06:00,010 --> 00:06:02,570 have gotten-- you've noticed, iPhone cameras always 154 00:06:02,570 --> 00:06:07,010 tell you, now our image quality is improved from iPhone 4 155 00:06:07,010 --> 00:06:09,290 to iPhone 6 by whatever percent. 156 00:06:09,290 --> 00:06:12,394 It's all about how well you can correct the light that you're 157 00:06:12,394 --> 00:06:14,310 trying to collect and get it in the spot where 158 00:06:14,310 --> 00:06:15,560 you want it to be. 159 00:06:15,560 --> 00:06:17,823 And that takes more and more lenses. 160 00:06:17,823 --> 00:06:19,156 So that gets more sophisticated. 161 00:06:22,320 --> 00:06:24,546 And then you have your software for image processing. 162 00:06:24,546 --> 00:06:25,920 So you can play around, like when 163 00:06:25,920 --> 00:06:29,020 you post-- I'm way too old for this-- but on Instagram 164 00:06:29,020 --> 00:06:30,750 and Twitter, you can do it color filters 165 00:06:30,750 --> 00:06:32,532 and make it look kind of different. 166 00:06:32,532 --> 00:06:33,990 That's all in the image processing, 167 00:06:33,990 --> 00:06:35,390 which you guys will get to do. 168 00:06:35,390 --> 00:06:37,680 Now, I like the eye as an example, 169 00:06:37,680 --> 00:06:40,870 because you've been using this camera since you were born. 170 00:06:40,870 --> 00:06:43,700 And pretty much you have a lens. 171 00:06:43,700 --> 00:06:46,010 It focuses the light on the back of your eye, which 172 00:06:46,010 --> 00:06:46,990 is called the retina. 173 00:06:46,990 --> 00:06:48,250 That's your detector. 174 00:06:48,250 --> 00:06:51,084 And then your brain processes that information 175 00:06:51,084 --> 00:06:51,750 from the retina. 176 00:06:51,750 --> 00:06:54,745 So your brain really is the image processing software. 177 00:06:54,745 --> 00:06:56,370 And I don't know if you guys knew this, 178 00:06:56,370 --> 00:07:00,020 but if we go back to-- what do you 179 00:07:00,020 --> 00:07:04,120 notice about the image of the tree in the pinhole camera? 180 00:07:04,120 --> 00:07:06,100 It's upside down, right. 181 00:07:06,100 --> 00:07:09,320 When your eye lens focuses on the back your retina, 182 00:07:09,320 --> 00:07:11,530 the image is actually inverted as well. 183 00:07:11,530 --> 00:07:13,170 Your brain fixes that for you. 184 00:07:13,170 --> 00:07:14,910 So this is kind of a funny thing, 185 00:07:14,910 --> 00:07:16,610 like you're looking at it. 186 00:07:16,610 --> 00:07:18,400 Your lens actually focuses it upside down, 187 00:07:18,400 --> 00:07:20,290 but your brain knows that up and down. 188 00:07:20,290 --> 00:07:24,280 So kind of an interesting built in image processing. 189 00:07:24,280 --> 00:07:26,840 So can you guys think of any other examples of cameras 190 00:07:26,840 --> 00:07:30,200 that you use kind of everyday? 191 00:07:30,200 --> 00:07:32,100 Or maybe not every day, just specific ones 192 00:07:32,100 --> 00:07:36,650 you've heard of maybe for other applications. 193 00:07:36,650 --> 00:07:39,550 You see a camera somewhere else that you go during the day. 194 00:07:39,550 --> 00:07:46,475 Or let's see-- 195 00:07:46,475 --> 00:07:49,307 AUDIENCE: I guess a camera for medical use, 196 00:07:49,307 --> 00:07:51,265 like for surgery so they can see what's inside. 197 00:07:54,620 --> 00:07:56,190 KRIS CLARK: Yes, exactly. 198 00:07:56,190 --> 00:07:59,810 You guys are going to hear about a really cool medical imaging 199 00:07:59,810 --> 00:08:01,770 camera at lunchtime, I think one that 200 00:08:01,770 --> 00:08:03,530 detects tumors in patients. 201 00:08:03,530 --> 00:08:04,990 So very good example. 202 00:08:04,990 --> 00:08:06,800 Anybody got another different example 203 00:08:06,800 --> 00:08:08,720 of what cameras are used for? 204 00:08:08,720 --> 00:08:09,864 AUDIENCE: Infrared cameras. 205 00:08:09,864 --> 00:08:11,280 KRIS CLARK: Yep, infrared cameras. 206 00:08:11,280 --> 00:08:13,890 What do those do? 207 00:08:13,890 --> 00:08:14,700 Exactly. 208 00:08:14,700 --> 00:08:17,830 And that brings us to our next portion. 209 00:08:17,830 --> 00:08:20,540 So when we talk about light, is anyone familiar with the term 210 00:08:20,540 --> 00:08:23,149 electromagnetic spectrum. 211 00:08:23,149 --> 00:08:24,190 You know what that means? 212 00:08:24,190 --> 00:08:27,488 Can you describe it a little bit? 213 00:08:27,488 --> 00:08:32,429 AUDIENCE: It's the frequency-- it's the different scale 214 00:08:32,429 --> 00:08:34,390 for the light [INAUDIBLE]. 215 00:08:34,390 --> 00:08:35,980 KRIS CLARK: Exactly right. 216 00:08:35,980 --> 00:08:41,020 So most of the time when you say light, 217 00:08:41,020 --> 00:08:42,570 you think of visible light, right? 218 00:08:42,570 --> 00:08:43,610 What we can see. 219 00:08:43,610 --> 00:08:46,150 But really, the electromagnetic spectrum 220 00:08:46,150 --> 00:08:50,580 defines a really large range of basically electromagnetic 221 00:08:50,580 --> 00:08:51,430 waves. 222 00:08:51,430 --> 00:08:53,870 And this very small region-- and we kind of 223 00:08:53,870 --> 00:08:56,160 define this by wavelength, how long 224 00:08:56,160 --> 00:08:58,680 is the wavelength of the light? 225 00:08:58,680 --> 00:09:02,040 Most of the stuff we work with is in this very small spectrum. 226 00:09:02,040 --> 00:09:04,660 But it branches all the way out here to radio frequencies, 227 00:09:04,660 --> 00:09:08,270 where a wavelength is the size of a building, 228 00:09:08,270 --> 00:09:11,620 all the way out to like gamma rays, where a wavelength is 229 00:09:11,620 --> 00:09:13,080 like atomic size. 230 00:09:13,080 --> 00:09:17,296 So the big reason probably that we focus so much on visible, 231 00:09:17,296 --> 00:09:18,420 that's where our eyes work. 232 00:09:18,420 --> 00:09:20,990 That's where we learned everything from the ground 233 00:09:20,990 --> 00:09:24,190 up of how imaging works, because we didn't have CCDs. 234 00:09:24,190 --> 00:09:25,980 We didn't have film a long time ago. 235 00:09:25,980 --> 00:09:28,570 We only had eyes and what we could see. 236 00:09:28,570 --> 00:09:30,310 But now there are cameras available, 237 00:09:30,310 --> 00:09:31,920 like you said, in infrared. 238 00:09:31,920 --> 00:09:33,430 And I have a little picture of that. 239 00:09:33,430 --> 00:09:35,590 Take a picture of your dog. 240 00:09:35,590 --> 00:09:40,370 So basically it's a different type of camera. 241 00:09:40,370 --> 00:09:43,290 It's collecting infrared light, which your eyes cannot see, 242 00:09:43,290 --> 00:09:46,285 but the particular lenses that are used to focus this light 243 00:09:46,285 --> 00:09:49,590 are specific materials that are used to focus infrared 244 00:09:49,590 --> 00:09:50,420 wavelengths. 245 00:09:50,420 --> 00:09:53,840 And the detector is sensitive to that range of wavelength 246 00:09:53,840 --> 00:09:54,340 as well. 247 00:09:54,340 --> 00:09:56,930 So when we say we need a lens and a detector, 248 00:09:56,930 --> 00:09:59,560 it's important to realize that the materials that 249 00:09:59,560 --> 00:10:03,310 go into those are very specific to whatever 250 00:10:03,310 --> 00:10:06,810 part of the spectrum you're trying to image. 251 00:10:06,810 --> 00:10:08,670 So there's an awful lot that goes into it. 252 00:10:08,670 --> 00:10:11,650 Some people spend their entire career on visible systems. 253 00:10:11,650 --> 00:10:13,580 Some people work entirely in the infrared. 254 00:10:13,580 --> 00:10:16,435 There are whole companies-- FLIR System is all about looking 255 00:10:16,435 --> 00:10:17,450 for infrared. 256 00:10:17,450 --> 00:10:19,988 So their whole business is built on infrared cameras. 257 00:10:19,988 --> 00:10:21,363 Certainly medical imaging, right? 258 00:10:21,363 --> 00:10:23,040 You've got x-rays. 259 00:10:23,040 --> 00:10:25,650 So there's tons of fields, and they 260 00:10:25,650 --> 00:10:30,430 can be very specific about what range they're looking at. 261 00:10:30,430 --> 00:10:31,950 So I threw out some other examples. 262 00:10:31,950 --> 00:10:33,620 Some of them you guys already hit on. 263 00:10:33,620 --> 00:10:38,650 So here's a little tiny camera that you can actually swallow. 264 00:10:38,650 --> 00:10:42,460 And people can image things in your digestive tract. 265 00:10:42,460 --> 00:10:46,000 It's a little bit creepy to think about, but it works. 266 00:10:46,000 --> 00:10:49,850 Certainly if you've been to the airport anytime recently, 267 00:10:49,850 --> 00:10:53,520 Homeland Security, cameras everywhere. 268 00:10:53,520 --> 00:10:55,850 Does anybody know, there's a specific kind of software 269 00:10:55,850 --> 00:10:58,980 that they can use with cameras in the airport. 270 00:10:58,980 --> 00:11:00,940 They can do something very specific 271 00:11:00,940 --> 00:11:03,336 if you're looking for a particular person. 272 00:11:08,545 --> 00:11:09,670 AUDIENCE: Face recognition? 273 00:11:09,670 --> 00:11:11,170 KRIS CLARK: Face recognition, right. 274 00:11:11,170 --> 00:11:14,340 So that's part of the image processing side of things. 275 00:11:14,340 --> 00:11:16,370 There are cameras very sophisticated 276 00:11:16,370 --> 00:11:18,340 that can scan whole crowds. 277 00:11:18,340 --> 00:11:21,300 And based on a still image of a particular person, 278 00:11:21,300 --> 00:11:23,100 they can try and pick out facial features 279 00:11:23,100 --> 00:11:24,780 by matching the images. 280 00:11:24,780 --> 00:11:26,437 So it's pretty amazing stuff, when 281 00:11:26,437 --> 00:11:29,020 you think about scanning through a crowd of hundreds of people 282 00:11:29,020 --> 00:11:31,340 and being able to pick out a specific person. 283 00:11:31,340 --> 00:11:35,040 So traffic regulation, I know that's a little less exciting. 284 00:11:35,040 --> 00:11:39,050 But they take a picture of you if you run a red light. 285 00:11:39,050 --> 00:11:42,660 I've worked on a bunch of programs 286 00:11:42,660 --> 00:11:47,070 at Lincoln Laboratory that work to look 287 00:11:47,070 --> 00:11:50,080 at various aspects of weather sensing. 288 00:11:50,080 --> 00:11:53,190 I worked on one that was made to detect lightning, 289 00:11:53,190 --> 00:11:54,820 because lightning causes forest fires. 290 00:11:54,820 --> 00:11:56,490 And if you know where the lightning is going to strike, 291 00:11:56,490 --> 00:11:58,050 you can kind of be prepared. 292 00:11:58,050 --> 00:12:00,580 So very specific uses in weather sensing. 293 00:12:00,580 --> 00:12:02,720 And then of course, that brings us 294 00:12:02,720 --> 00:12:05,210 to my favorite, space exploration, which 295 00:12:05,210 --> 00:12:08,680 is what I'm working on now. 296 00:12:08,680 --> 00:12:11,250 So now over a broad reach of examples, 297 00:12:11,250 --> 00:12:14,160 I'm going to talk about specifically the one for space 298 00:12:14,160 --> 00:12:15,044 applications. 299 00:12:15,044 --> 00:12:17,210 And this is the current program that I'm working on. 300 00:12:17,210 --> 00:12:20,004 I've been working on it for about four years. 301 00:12:20,004 --> 00:12:21,420 Right from the very beginning when 302 00:12:21,420 --> 00:12:23,610 we developed the first prototype camera, 303 00:12:23,610 --> 00:12:25,480 and we've refined it since then. 304 00:12:25,480 --> 00:12:27,310 So I'll tell you a bit about that. 305 00:12:27,310 --> 00:12:28,610 Has anyone heard of it? 306 00:12:28,610 --> 00:12:31,580 Because it actually has its own Facebook page, 307 00:12:31,580 --> 00:12:33,530 which is unusual for a lab program, 308 00:12:33,530 --> 00:12:35,270 because it's completely unclassified, 309 00:12:35,270 --> 00:12:37,371 and it has lots of followers. 310 00:12:37,371 --> 00:12:38,870 The science community that's looking 311 00:12:38,870 --> 00:12:41,564 to use the data from TESS is all over the world. 312 00:12:41,564 --> 00:12:43,230 Like the test science community actually 313 00:12:43,230 --> 00:12:45,350 meets down the road at Harvard. 314 00:12:45,350 --> 00:12:49,000 And they have people from all over Europe. 315 00:12:49,000 --> 00:12:51,540 Nobody's heard of it? 316 00:12:51,540 --> 00:12:53,420 OK, so not really surprised. 317 00:12:53,420 --> 00:12:55,990 But I figure Facebook, you might have happened upon it. 318 00:12:55,990 --> 00:12:58,180 So basically, the goal for TESS-- 319 00:12:58,180 --> 00:13:01,290 has anyone heard of Kepler here? 320 00:13:01,290 --> 00:13:04,094 So do you know what Kepler was looking for? 321 00:13:04,094 --> 00:13:05,249 AUDIENCE: Exoplanets? 322 00:13:05,249 --> 00:13:07,290 KRIS CLARK: Yeah, who knows what an exoplanet is? 323 00:13:07,290 --> 00:13:08,754 Anybody? 324 00:13:08,754 --> 00:13:11,410 AUDIENCE: [INAUDIBLE]. 325 00:13:11,410 --> 00:13:13,520 KRIS CLARK: Exactly, sorry. 326 00:13:13,520 --> 00:13:14,560 Yeah, it's any planet. 327 00:13:14,560 --> 00:13:17,300 So that's a pretty large field, because there's only nine-- 328 00:13:17,300 --> 00:13:18,600 I still count Pluto. 329 00:13:18,600 --> 00:13:20,362 So any other planet that you can think of 330 00:13:20,362 --> 00:13:21,320 is called an exoplanet. 331 00:13:21,320 --> 00:13:23,028 So something outside of our solar system. 332 00:13:23,028 --> 00:13:25,710 So Kepler did look for exoplanets, 333 00:13:25,710 --> 00:13:28,444 and it was kind of the first one out there to look and see, 334 00:13:28,444 --> 00:13:30,610 well we think there's a lot of exoplanets out there, 335 00:13:30,610 --> 00:13:32,700 but let's go look at a specific section of the sky 336 00:13:32,700 --> 00:13:35,500 and make sure, before we build lots of other missions 337 00:13:35,500 --> 00:13:37,950 to go look for exoplanets that we're kind of right. 338 00:13:37,950 --> 00:13:41,221 And Kepler did confirm there's an awful lot of exoplanets 339 00:13:41,221 --> 00:13:41,720 to look for. 340 00:13:41,720 --> 00:13:42,810 So along came TESS. 341 00:13:42,810 --> 00:13:47,360 TESS's goal is to go up and spend two years basically 342 00:13:47,360 --> 00:13:49,710 canvassing the entire sky, looking 343 00:13:49,710 --> 00:13:52,060 at specific types of stars-- sort of red, 344 00:13:52,060 --> 00:13:56,810 cooler stars-- to identify where exoplanets might be. 345 00:13:56,810 --> 00:14:00,180 And we do that, it's very simple, actually. 346 00:14:00,180 --> 00:14:02,110 If you have a star, and you happen 347 00:14:02,110 --> 00:14:05,210 to be looking at it when the planet's transiting, as it's 348 00:14:05,210 --> 00:14:08,279 called-- when it passes in front of the planet-- what 349 00:14:08,279 --> 00:14:10,320 do you think happens if you're looking at a star, 350 00:14:10,320 --> 00:14:11,420 and you see the light from the star, 351 00:14:11,420 --> 00:14:12,628 and the planet goes in front? 352 00:14:12,628 --> 00:14:15,660 What do you think happens to the light? 353 00:14:15,660 --> 00:14:16,660 There's a shadow, right? 354 00:14:16,660 --> 00:14:18,960 So the light is decreased. 355 00:14:18,960 --> 00:14:21,070 And that's really the whole principle behind TESS 356 00:14:21,070 --> 00:14:24,480 is looking for those little decreases in the light 357 00:14:24,480 --> 00:14:25,394 from the star. 358 00:14:25,394 --> 00:14:27,060 Now, it's got some very specific things. 359 00:14:27,060 --> 00:14:28,980 You can only see it if the planet 360 00:14:28,980 --> 00:14:30,970 is kind of orbiting in front of the star. 361 00:14:30,970 --> 00:14:33,469 If it's going around this way, you're not going to see that. 362 00:14:33,469 --> 00:14:36,650 So it's a small percentage of chances to pick it up. 363 00:14:36,650 --> 00:14:38,220 But that's how we're going to do it. 364 00:14:38,220 --> 00:14:39,820 So I have kind of a cool movie. 365 00:14:39,820 --> 00:14:42,165 Let's see if I can get this started. 366 00:14:42,165 --> 00:14:43,665 They have some really good graphics, 367 00:14:43,665 --> 00:14:48,010 the people at the lab that put this movie together. 368 00:14:48,010 --> 00:14:49,400 So this is the general idea. 369 00:14:49,400 --> 00:14:51,922 The planet's going around the star. 370 00:14:51,922 --> 00:14:53,380 And then at the bottom, it'll start 371 00:14:53,380 --> 00:14:55,570 to trace out the light signal. 372 00:14:55,570 --> 00:14:57,780 So there's the starlight, and then 373 00:14:57,780 --> 00:15:01,280 as the planet passes in front of it, this little dip. 374 00:15:01,280 --> 00:15:05,620 Now, what do you notice when the planet passes behind the star? 375 00:15:05,620 --> 00:15:07,140 Anybody notice anything interesting? 376 00:15:07,140 --> 00:15:11,720 Like when it passes in front, the dip is pretty obvious. 377 00:15:11,720 --> 00:15:12,940 But what's the second dip? 378 00:15:12,940 --> 00:15:14,060 Anybody get any ideas? 379 00:15:16,844 --> 00:15:21,030 AUDIENCE: Well, I just noticed as it goes around the star, 380 00:15:21,030 --> 00:15:24,450 the line goes up a little bit. 381 00:15:24,450 --> 00:15:25,960 KRIS CLARK: Yep, so somehow we're 382 00:15:25,960 --> 00:15:27,500 getting a little more light signal. 383 00:15:27,500 --> 00:15:30,080 What do you think that is? 384 00:15:30,080 --> 00:15:34,480 AUDIENCE: Reflection from the star on the on the planet? 385 00:15:34,480 --> 00:15:35,960 KRIS CLARK: Exactly, exactly. 386 00:15:35,960 --> 00:15:39,660 So if you think of a star as emitting radiation 387 00:15:39,660 --> 00:15:43,300 in all directions, we're seeing the stuff coming toward us. 388 00:15:43,300 --> 00:15:45,710 But as the planet passes behind the star, 389 00:15:45,710 --> 00:15:47,920 some of the light that would be going backwards gets 390 00:15:47,920 --> 00:15:51,360 reflected forwards, and then you get this kind of increase 391 00:15:51,360 --> 00:15:52,530 in your light curve. 392 00:15:52,530 --> 00:15:54,642 So this is called the characteristic light curve. 393 00:15:54,642 --> 00:15:56,350 So if there were no planet, it would just 394 00:15:56,350 --> 00:15:58,450 be pretty much a constant line. 395 00:15:58,450 --> 00:16:02,009 And what TESS is doing is looking for these little blips. 396 00:16:02,009 --> 00:16:03,550 And they call it periodic, because it 397 00:16:03,550 --> 00:16:08,520 happens kind of-- everyone know what periodic means? 398 00:16:08,520 --> 00:16:11,120 And the problem is, depending on what star 399 00:16:11,120 --> 00:16:14,430 you're looking at, if it's a small planet, what do you think 400 00:16:14,430 --> 00:16:16,240 happens to this if the planet gets bigger? 401 00:16:18,870 --> 00:16:19,862 Anybody? 402 00:16:19,862 --> 00:16:21,350 AUDIENCE: The dip gets deeper? 403 00:16:21,350 --> 00:16:22,980 KRIS CLARK: The dip get steeper. 404 00:16:22,980 --> 00:16:25,110 Now, we're trying to look for Earth-like planets. 405 00:16:25,110 --> 00:16:26,940 And if you think of Earth compared 406 00:16:26,940 --> 00:16:30,970 to other planets in our solar system, what size are we? 407 00:16:30,970 --> 00:16:34,237 Like compared to Jupiter, we're small. 408 00:16:34,237 --> 00:16:35,820 So Jupiter is easy to find, because it 409 00:16:35,820 --> 00:16:37,950 reflects a lot of light, it blocks a lot of light. 410 00:16:37,950 --> 00:16:41,120 But the smaller you get, and Earth is relatively small, 411 00:16:41,120 --> 00:16:42,260 the smaller that dip is. 412 00:16:42,260 --> 00:16:44,940 So TESS really needs to detect-- it's about 1% 413 00:16:44,940 --> 00:16:49,120 variation in this very bright signal from a star. 414 00:16:49,120 --> 00:16:52,180 So that's the challenge for TESS. 415 00:16:52,180 --> 00:16:55,327 Just to show you a little bit about where TESS is orbiting-- 416 00:16:55,327 --> 00:16:57,660 and there's a movie, so I won't spend too long in here-- 417 00:16:57,660 --> 00:16:59,400 but basically, here's Earth. 418 00:16:59,400 --> 00:17:01,570 TESS goes out really far. 419 00:17:01,570 --> 00:17:03,440 Like 60 Earth-radius far. 420 00:17:03,440 --> 00:17:04,510 Beyond the moon. 421 00:17:04,510 --> 00:17:07,270 So they call this highly elliptical. 422 00:17:07,270 --> 00:17:09,020 And that's for a lot of different reasons, 423 00:17:09,020 --> 00:17:12,720 that primarily it's a very thermally-stable orbit, 424 00:17:12,720 --> 00:17:14,640 so the temperature stays the same. 425 00:17:14,640 --> 00:17:16,920 And that's one of many variables that go 426 00:17:16,920 --> 00:17:18,819 into designing space cameras. 427 00:17:18,819 --> 00:17:20,460 You have to be aware of the environment 428 00:17:20,460 --> 00:17:22,050 that your camera is going to live in. 429 00:17:22,050 --> 00:17:25,619 If you design a camera that works in your laboratory 430 00:17:25,619 --> 00:17:29,360 at like 20 degrees Celsius or 70 Fahrenheit, 431 00:17:29,360 --> 00:17:32,420 then you transcend it the space where it's minus 80, 432 00:17:32,420 --> 00:17:33,620 might not work out so well. 433 00:17:33,620 --> 00:17:36,930 So some of the important considerations. 434 00:17:36,930 --> 00:17:41,370 And what TESS does is it has two orbits per month 435 00:17:41,370 --> 00:17:44,510 that it stares at a very particular section of the sky. 436 00:17:44,510 --> 00:17:45,900 And we have four cameras aligned, 437 00:17:45,900 --> 00:17:47,240 so we get a very wide field of view. 438 00:17:47,240 --> 00:17:48,364 So we kind of go like this. 439 00:17:48,364 --> 00:17:52,747 There's four cameras, and it's almost 100 degrees. 440 00:17:52,747 --> 00:17:54,330 And it stares at a section of the sky. 441 00:17:54,330 --> 00:17:55,970 And then after a month, it moves. 442 00:17:55,970 --> 00:17:59,340 And basically, it scans out the entire sky. 443 00:17:59,340 --> 00:18:02,010 So TESS is going to look at not 100%. 444 00:18:02,010 --> 00:18:05,170 You can see have a few open areas near the equator. 445 00:18:05,170 --> 00:18:08,430 But about 95% of the sky, we'll be looking and watching 446 00:18:08,430 --> 00:18:09,940 for exoplanets. 447 00:18:09,940 --> 00:18:14,186 So this movie shows it much better than I can describe it. 448 00:18:22,100 --> 00:18:24,220 So you can see the Moon orbiting the Earth. 449 00:18:24,220 --> 00:18:26,480 And you can see TESS goes around the Earth twice 450 00:18:26,480 --> 00:18:29,070 for every time the moon does. 451 00:18:29,070 --> 00:18:31,020 And in fact, the moon-- I don't know 452 00:18:31,020 --> 00:18:32,770 a lot about orbital mechanics, but I do 453 00:18:32,770 --> 00:18:35,570 know that in the process of getting to that final orbit, 454 00:18:35,570 --> 00:18:37,820 there's about three different orbits that it gradually 455 00:18:37,820 --> 00:18:40,170 gets further and further out till it gets that final orbit. 456 00:18:40,170 --> 00:18:42,040 And it uses the moon and gravitational pull 457 00:18:42,040 --> 00:18:44,810 from the moon to hit to get out to that last highly 458 00:18:44,810 --> 00:18:45,560 elliptical orbit. 459 00:18:45,560 --> 00:18:47,890 So there's a whole lot of interesting science 460 00:18:47,890 --> 00:18:50,400 just to get TESS where it needs to go. 461 00:18:50,400 --> 00:18:54,090 So now that TESS is on its orbit, you'll watch. 462 00:18:54,090 --> 00:18:56,940 And that outline here, that's the field 463 00:18:56,940 --> 00:18:58,780 of view of each of the cameras. 464 00:18:58,780 --> 00:19:01,250 So there's four cameras in a row. 465 00:19:01,250 --> 00:19:02,160 And it scans out. 466 00:19:02,160 --> 00:19:06,270 That's one month at a time that it's scanning out. 467 00:19:06,270 --> 00:19:10,494 Now, what do you notice about this part? 468 00:19:10,494 --> 00:19:11,410 AUDIENCE: [INAUDIBLE]. 469 00:19:14,792 --> 00:19:15,500 KRIS CLARK: Yeah. 470 00:19:15,500 --> 00:19:18,110 So this is what we call the continuous coverage zone. 471 00:19:18,110 --> 00:19:20,930 So in the attempt to see the entire sky, 472 00:19:20,930 --> 00:19:22,390 there's going to be some overlap. 473 00:19:22,390 --> 00:19:28,999 So basically at the poles, we see almost full-year coverage. 474 00:19:28,999 --> 00:19:30,790 Now we're going to the Southern hemisphere, 475 00:19:30,790 --> 00:19:32,990 this is year two of the mission. 476 00:19:32,990 --> 00:19:36,180 Same thing, we're going to scan out the entire sky. 477 00:19:36,180 --> 00:19:41,790 And we get almost full, continuous coverage 478 00:19:41,790 --> 00:19:43,220 at the poles. 479 00:19:43,220 --> 00:19:46,640 And so not by chance, the follow-on mission. 480 00:19:46,640 --> 00:19:50,550 Has anyone heard of James Webb Space Telescope? 481 00:19:50,550 --> 00:19:53,130 It's looking up here. 482 00:19:53,130 --> 00:19:55,880 So one of TESS's goals is to provide 483 00:19:55,880 --> 00:19:59,202 basically a catalog of just thousands of places to go look. 484 00:19:59,202 --> 00:20:00,660 Say, go look at this star, we think 485 00:20:00,660 --> 00:20:01,670 there's an exoplanet there. 486 00:20:01,670 --> 00:20:03,211 Than James Webb doesn't have to spend 487 00:20:03,211 --> 00:20:04,940 a lot of time looking for them. 488 00:20:04,940 --> 00:20:06,870 It knows exactly where to look. 489 00:20:06,870 --> 00:20:10,917 And James Webb is going up there to-- I have the picture. 490 00:20:10,917 --> 00:20:12,000 It's a little bit further. 491 00:20:12,000 --> 00:20:13,520 So James Webb is going up there and is 492 00:20:13,520 --> 00:20:15,270 going to have a target planet, and go look 493 00:20:15,270 --> 00:20:16,890 at the atmosphere of that planet. 494 00:20:16,890 --> 00:20:19,550 So TESS is really just designed to find planets. 495 00:20:19,550 --> 00:20:21,840 It can't really characterize planets. 496 00:20:21,840 --> 00:20:24,190 James Webb can go up and look at the atmospherics 497 00:20:24,190 --> 00:20:26,941 of the planets in question and determine 498 00:20:26,941 --> 00:20:27,940 is it really like Earth? 499 00:20:27,940 --> 00:20:28,570 Is it hotter? 500 00:20:28,570 --> 00:20:29,360 Is it colder? 501 00:20:29,360 --> 00:20:30,693 You know, what's the atmosphere? 502 00:20:33,370 --> 00:20:35,860 All right, so since you guys have already ripped apart 503 00:20:35,860 --> 00:20:37,776 cameras and are going to be building your own, 504 00:20:37,776 --> 00:20:41,360 I figured I'd show you kind of the insides of the TESS camera. 505 00:20:41,360 --> 00:20:45,560 So we identified our two key pieces. 506 00:20:45,560 --> 00:20:48,670 Now, this is basically a section view. 507 00:20:48,670 --> 00:20:51,680 So there's an awful lot of stuff going on in there. 508 00:20:51,680 --> 00:20:56,520 But basically, this whole back end section is our detector. 509 00:20:56,520 --> 00:20:59,670 This front end section is our lens. 510 00:20:59,670 --> 00:21:02,760 And anybody have any guesses at some of the stuff 511 00:21:02,760 --> 00:21:05,710 you can see in the back behind the detector? 512 00:21:05,710 --> 00:21:08,700 Anybody recognize anything back there? 513 00:21:10,914 --> 00:21:12,580 Because you're going to see some of this 514 00:21:12,580 --> 00:21:14,430 stuff a little bit later. 515 00:21:14,430 --> 00:21:17,510 So detector's pretty much made up-- you have your CCD, right? 516 00:21:17,510 --> 00:21:19,170 That's your silicon active area. 517 00:21:19,170 --> 00:21:21,380 But you need some electronics behind it, too, right? 518 00:21:21,380 --> 00:21:23,130 So you guys are going to see that when you 519 00:21:23,130 --> 00:21:24,530 build your Raspberry Pi camera. 520 00:21:24,530 --> 00:21:27,116 You can see the electronics that actually pull the image in, 521 00:21:27,116 --> 00:21:29,240 and then you're going to do your signal processing. 522 00:21:29,240 --> 00:21:31,670 For TESS, that's all done on this back end. 523 00:21:31,670 --> 00:21:37,505 Now I am much more-- I'm a physicist by degree, 524 00:21:37,505 --> 00:21:38,880 but my whole career has basically 525 00:21:38,880 --> 00:21:41,170 been on lens design and lens test. 526 00:21:41,170 --> 00:21:44,220 So this is really more my sweet spot. 527 00:21:44,220 --> 00:21:47,914 This lens, we can characterize it a few different ways. 528 00:21:47,914 --> 00:21:49,330 So there's seven different lenses. 529 00:21:49,330 --> 00:21:51,750 So that tells you there's an awful lot that 530 00:21:51,750 --> 00:21:53,490 goes into this, because we're looking 531 00:21:53,490 --> 00:21:57,090 at a very specific band. 532 00:21:57,090 --> 00:21:59,150 And so that drives how many lenses we need 533 00:21:59,150 --> 00:22:01,790 and what materials that need to be made out of. 534 00:22:01,790 --> 00:22:04,540 And we have to match our detector. 535 00:22:04,540 --> 00:22:06,790 Because if we image light and then use a detector 536 00:22:06,790 --> 00:22:10,180 that isn't very sensitive to that particular wavelength 537 00:22:10,180 --> 00:22:12,600 of light, not going to get a very good image. 538 00:22:12,600 --> 00:22:15,780 But there is one thing I wanted to stress about TESS. 539 00:22:15,780 --> 00:22:18,959 So your phone takes really nice, clear pictures, 540 00:22:18,959 --> 00:22:20,750 and you can take pictures with your friends 541 00:22:20,750 --> 00:22:21,874 and they're nice and clear. 542 00:22:21,874 --> 00:22:23,450 TESS is not that kind of camera. 543 00:22:23,450 --> 00:22:25,480 So if you think about what TESS is trying to do, 544 00:22:25,480 --> 00:22:28,540 it's trying to look at a very wide field of view, 545 00:22:28,540 --> 00:22:29,900 a huge area. 546 00:22:29,900 --> 00:22:31,382 And does anyone know what typically 547 00:22:31,382 --> 00:22:33,090 happens when you have a camera and you're 548 00:22:33,090 --> 00:22:36,450 trying to look at a very wide field of view with a camera? 549 00:22:36,450 --> 00:22:40,960 What do you notice about the edges of the picture? 550 00:22:40,960 --> 00:22:43,410 Has anyone ever seen a very wide field of the image? 551 00:22:46,940 --> 00:22:49,530 Trying to think of a good example. 552 00:22:49,530 --> 00:22:52,480 An old school camera, an old school photo. 553 00:22:52,480 --> 00:22:55,850 The edges of the image are not as good as the center. 554 00:22:55,850 --> 00:23:00,240 So if you are trying to optimize your camera 555 00:23:00,240 --> 00:23:03,140 to look at a very specific spot, you can do really 556 00:23:03,140 --> 00:23:04,930 well in one place, but the further 557 00:23:04,930 --> 00:23:07,210 you expand your field of view basically, 558 00:23:07,210 --> 00:23:10,560 it's hard to keep the entire field of view in focus. 559 00:23:10,560 --> 00:23:12,810 And so TESS is not really concerned about taking 560 00:23:12,810 --> 00:23:14,680 really pretty, sharp images. 561 00:23:14,680 --> 00:23:16,910 All it needs to do is-- basically, 562 00:23:16,910 --> 00:23:18,090 we call it a light bucket. 563 00:23:18,090 --> 00:23:20,130 It's trying to collect the light from the stars 564 00:23:20,130 --> 00:23:24,730 in a small enough spot that we can notice that little change 565 00:23:24,730 --> 00:23:26,340 in the light curve. 566 00:23:26,340 --> 00:23:28,720 So it's kind of a totally different type of camera. 567 00:23:28,720 --> 00:23:30,550 It's not a pretty pictures camera. 568 00:23:30,550 --> 00:23:32,790 It's a light collection camera. 569 00:23:32,790 --> 00:23:35,630 And the other key thing to think about 570 00:23:35,630 --> 00:23:37,810 when you're designing a camera, so what 571 00:23:37,810 --> 00:23:39,240 are you trying to do with it? 572 00:23:39,240 --> 00:23:41,650 But also, where are you trying to do that? 573 00:23:41,650 --> 00:23:43,770 So TESS is going to operate. 574 00:23:43,770 --> 00:23:47,630 We design it on the ground at a normal temperature 575 00:23:47,630 --> 00:23:48,740 for you and me. 576 00:23:48,740 --> 00:23:50,530 But there's a lot of adjustments that 577 00:23:50,530 --> 00:23:52,960 have to go into the design to make sure 578 00:23:52,960 --> 00:23:56,420 that when it's up in space and really cold, 579 00:23:56,420 --> 00:23:58,140 that it will operate as intended. 580 00:23:58,140 --> 00:24:00,270 So there's a lot that goes into the camera design. 581 00:24:00,270 --> 00:24:01,890 It's not just what you're going to do, 582 00:24:01,890 --> 00:24:03,264 but where you're trying to do it. 583 00:24:06,100 --> 00:24:08,610 And so this is where TESS fits into the exoplanet puzzle. 584 00:24:08,610 --> 00:24:10,830 We talked a little bit about this before. 585 00:24:10,830 --> 00:24:12,697 So I wanted to put these pictures in, 586 00:24:12,697 --> 00:24:14,280 because they look so different, right? 587 00:24:14,280 --> 00:24:16,310 So this is what Kepler looked like. 588 00:24:16,310 --> 00:24:18,670 It was looking at a very specific section of sky. 589 00:24:18,670 --> 00:24:20,170 So it was doing something different. 590 00:24:20,170 --> 00:24:22,620 It was looking at a very narrow field of view, 591 00:24:22,620 --> 00:24:24,730 and very specific planets. 592 00:24:24,730 --> 00:24:27,220 TESS, you've seen we've got four cameras. 593 00:24:27,220 --> 00:24:30,810 And our goal is to just go up there and find planets, but not 594 00:24:30,810 --> 00:24:32,320 really characterize them. 595 00:24:32,320 --> 00:24:35,760 And then James Webb looks totally different than we do. 596 00:24:35,760 --> 00:24:40,410 It's got multiple instruments on the same spacecraft, 597 00:24:40,410 --> 00:24:43,010 and it's going up there, and it can actually characterize 598 00:24:43,010 --> 00:24:44,430 the atmospheres of the planet. 599 00:24:44,430 --> 00:24:46,700 So we get one step closer to finding out 600 00:24:46,700 --> 00:24:49,665 if there really is another Earth-like planet up in space. 601 00:24:52,340 --> 00:24:54,140 All right, so just to kind of close out. 602 00:24:54,140 --> 00:24:55,770 So we've talked about a bunch of different cameras. 603 00:24:55,770 --> 00:24:57,400 And one thing I want to stress, they're 604 00:24:57,400 --> 00:24:58,840 used in so many different fields. 605 00:24:58,840 --> 00:25:01,490 Even if you don't want to be a camera designer, just 606 00:25:01,490 --> 00:25:04,800 understanding how they work and how different things affect 607 00:25:04,800 --> 00:25:08,320 them can be useful to you in so many different fields now. 608 00:25:08,320 --> 00:25:10,390 Because even if you're into something 609 00:25:10,390 --> 00:25:12,960 that's not really super technical, 610 00:25:12,960 --> 00:25:14,560 you might end up using cameras. 611 00:25:14,560 --> 00:25:17,260 And so I think no matter what you choose to do, 612 00:25:17,260 --> 00:25:19,270 it's nice to have that ability and to really 613 00:25:19,270 --> 00:25:20,760 understand how they function. 614 00:25:20,760 --> 00:25:22,510 But if you do really get into it, 615 00:25:22,510 --> 00:25:24,550 there's an awful lot of different areas 616 00:25:24,550 --> 00:25:26,530 that you could really focus on and I 617 00:25:26,530 --> 00:25:30,380 think make a huge difference in your field. 618 00:25:30,380 --> 00:25:36,530 So what you can do with cameras right now is have some fun. 619 00:25:36,530 --> 00:25:38,360 So I hope you guys have a great day, 620 00:25:38,360 --> 00:25:41,390 and I hope you have fun building the cameras 621 00:25:41,390 --> 00:25:46,140 and figuring out if maybe optical engineering or detector 622 00:25:46,140 --> 00:25:48,300 or signal processing is your passion. 623 00:25:48,300 --> 00:25:50,740 So good luck with the rest of the day. 624 00:25:50,740 --> 00:25:54,390 [APPLAUSE]