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HERBERT GROSS: Hi, our topic today sounds a little bit
naughty at first glance.
It's called improper integrals.
And rather than give a long speech about why they're
called improper, let me try and start our lecture a little
bit different from our usual approach, by giving you a
little bit of a mathematical calculus riddle.
Namely, let me just say this.
We'll call our lecture today improper integrals, and we'll
start off by saying find the flaw.
I would like to integrate 'dx' over 'x squared'
from minus 1 to 1.
Using the first fundamental theorem of integral calculus,
I say this is 'G of 1' minus 'G of minus 1' where 'G prime'
is any function whose derivative
is '1 over 'x squared''.
Well, in particular, do I know a function whose derivative is
'1 over 'x squared''?
Well, I guess minus '1 over x'.
In other words, the derivative of 'x' to the minus 1 is minus
'x' to the minus 2.
With the minus in front that makes it plus.
'x' to the minus 2.
That's plus '1 over 'x squared''.
In any event, I can then compute that 'G
of 1' is minus 1.
'G of minus 1' is 1.
Therefore, 'G of 1' minus 'G of minus 1' is minus 1 minus
1, is minus 2.
Therefore, the integral from minus 1 to 1, 'dx' over 'x
squared', is minus 2.
And the question is, find the flaw.
Find the flaw.
And since again, we're on limited time, let me, if you
haven't already discovered the flaw, at least point out why
you should be suspicious of a flaw.
Remember, we visualized this as an area under a curve.
In other words, in a way, the base of our region is the
closed interval from minus 1 to 1, and the height of our
region at any point is given by '1 over 'x squared''.
Well, look at '1 over 'x squared''.
Certainly, '1 over 'x squared'' can't be negative
because for any real number 'x', its square is
non-negative.
And one over a non-negative number is certainly
non-negative.
In particular then, since my region never goes below the
x-axis, I would expect that the area represented by this
should be positive.
In other words, this is the sum of positive numbers taken
in the limit.
In other words, the fact that the integrand is non-negative
tells me that whenever the integral turns out to be, it
must be at least as big as 0, and minus 2 does not fulfill
that criteria.
In other words, something must be wrong here because we get a
negative answer in a situation where a negative answer is
preposterous.
And the reason that I wanted to pick this approach is I
think that the best way to motivate that something is
wrong is precisely by winding up with a preposterous answer
in a situation where we know the answer is preposterous.
Then we know we must be on our guard to see what went wrong.
And what did go wrong?
Well, the key point is this.
And again, it's something that we've said many, many times.
But I think it takes a counter example before it
really sinks in.
People are always quoting the first
fundamental theorem in general.
It's easy to remember that the integral from 'a' to 'b', ''f
of x' dx' is 'G of b' minus 'G of a', where 'G
prime' equals 'f'.
But the thing that we must be extremely careful of is that
this definition requires that 'f' be at least piecewise
continuous on the interval from 'a' to 'b'.
Remember when we took the limit and put the squeeze on,
we required that there be continuity, so we could pass
to the limit.
The important point is in this particular example that we're
dealing with, observe that '1 over 'x squared'' is infinite.
I write this in quotation marks to point out you have a
1/0 form, which we usually abbreviate as infinity.
In other words, '1 over 'x squared'' increases without
bound as 'x' approaches 0.
And notice that 0 was within the limits of our integration
from minus 1 to 1.
At any rate, without further ado, this leads to a
fundamental definition.
Which in terms of today's lesson, I call
definition number 1.
And that is the integral from 'a' to 'b', 'f of x dx is
called 'improper'.
And there are going to be two types of improper integrals as
we'll find out very shortly.
But it's called improper of the first kind, if and only if
'f' is infinite for at least one 'c' in the interval from
'a' to 'b'.
And again, let me caution you about this and I'll summarize
at the end of the lecture again to remind you.
If you look at this particular integral, it doesn't look at
all suspicious.
In fact, that's where the trap came in in this
problem over here.
The reason that we wound up with minus 2 is that we just
integrated '1 over 'x squared'', forgetting that
there was a point at which the integrand was infinite in the
given interval.
And so the question that comes up is, how shall we handle
this if we have an infinity in here?
And the answer is, let's work around the point at which the
integral or the integrand is infinite.
Let's see what that means.
And this again, is a continuation of the
definition, I guess.
If 'c' is the only point in the closed interval from 'a'
to 'b' at which 'f' is infinite, we defined the
integral from 'a' to 'b', ''f of x' dx' to be
the following limit.
It's the limit as 'h' approaches 0
through positive values.
The definite integral from 'a' to 'c' minus 'h'.
In other words, you're stopping somewhere before you
get to this bad point, evaluating ''f of x' dx'.
And there's no harm done in here because you see, 'f of x'
is infinite only at 'x' equals 'c' in this problem.
Consequently, if you stop prior to 'c', 'f of x' is at
least piecewise continuous every place in here.
Then you jump over the bad point, pick up again at 'c
plus h' and say plus the integral from 'c plus h' to
'b', ''f of x' dx'.
This limit as 'h' approaches 0 through positive values.
Now again, this may sound very abstract.
So to give this a more realistic meaning to you,
let's interpret this again in terms of an area.
What we're saying is this pictorially.
We have a function which is piecewise continuous at least
on the entire interval from 'a' to 'b', except at the
point 'c' where we have an infinite discontinuity, an
infinite jump.
What we do is, is we pick a positive number 'h' and knock
off the interval 'c minus h' to 'c plus h' surrounding 'c'.
We then compute the area.
We then compute the area of this shaded region.
That's exactly what's inside the brackets over here.
You see, notice that this sum is what?
It's the sum of two integrals, one of which names this area,
and the other of which names this area.
And what we say is, let's put the squeeze on and see what
limiting value this area approaches as we squeeze all
the space out around 'c'.
In other words, what's really happening over here?
What we're really saying is, why can't we treat an infinite
region the same as if it were a finite region taking the
limit as the size of the strip in here goes to 0?
And here's the key point.
You see, as 'h' approaches 'c' from both sides, notice that
the width of this region approaches 0.
By the same token, the height of the region
is approaching infinity.
In essence, what we're running into again, is the problem of
determining the area of an infinite region involves the
study of infinity times 0.
In fact, the question sort of is, does 'h' go to 0 faster
than 'f of 'c plus or minus h'' goes to infinity?
In fact, I think that's an important enough observation,
so I've written it down here to make sure
that you notice it.
The question centers about the question, the problem of
whether 'h' approaches 0 faster than--
whatever this means.
Faster than 'f of 'c plus or minus h'' approaches infinity.
In our particular example, this didn't happen.
Now again, if you're afraid of the symbol infinity, let's
deal with the finite case and take the limit later.
In other words, instead of looking at the integral from 0
to 1, 'dx' over 'x squared', let's look at the integral
from 'h' to 1.
Integral from 'h' to 1, 'dx' over 'x squared', and then
later we'll take the limit as 'h' approaches 0.
In particular, if this is my region 'R', namely bounded
above by the curve 'y' equals '1 over 'x squared'', below by
the x-axis.
On the left by the line 'x' equals 'h' and on the right by
the line 'x' equals 1, the area of the region 'R' is
written what?
Integral 'h' to 1, 'dx' over 'x squared'.
Notice that as long as 'h' is not 0, our integrand is
continuous.
Therefore, we can use the first fundamental theorem to
evaluate it.
It's what?
It's minus '1 over x' evaluated between 'h' and 1.
Putting in the upper limit gives me a minus 1.
Putting in the lower limit gives me minus '1/h'.
But I'm subtracting that, so it becomes plus '1/h'.
In other words, the area of my region 'R' is 1/h minus 1.
Notice then that 'A sub R' as 'h' approaches 0 from the
right becomes the limit of '1/h' as 'h' approaches 0 from
the right minus 1.
And the limit of '1/h' as 'h' approaches 0 from the right is
clearly infinity.
In other words, as 'h' gets arbitrarily close to 0 through
positive values, '1/h' increases without any bound.
In other words, what this means in plain English is that
we can make the area of the region 'R' as arbitrarily as
large as we wish just by choosing 'h' to be
sufficiently close to 0 here.
You see, in other words, as 'h' approaches 0, what's
happening here is that this curve is not approaching the
y-axis fast enough to allow us to get a finite area.
And by the way, let me make one little aside comparing
this with our previous answer.
You may recall, and let me just pull this board down here
to remind you of that.
You may recall that when we worked this problem before, we
got the wrong answer, negative 2.
OK, now look it.
In terms of my problem over here, we went from minus 1 to
1 so this is only 1/2 of the region that
we're talking about.
Notice that the minus 2 comes from this.
See twice minus 1 by symmetry.
The interesting thing is notice here that when you take
the limit--
well, forgetting that there's an infinite discontinuity
here, when you let 'h' approach 0, you tend to say
let's forget about the function of 'h' in here.
Notice here as 'h' approaches 0, this
thing went to infinity.
By ignoring it, that's where you got the answer minus 2.
In other words, by assuming that as 'h' got small, the
function of 'h' got small, we threw out an infinite part of
our answer.
In other words, this was the thing that we
had to worry about.
In this particular case, we slurred over something that
wasn't going to 0 fast enough.
By the way, let me caution you and point out that in this
particular example it happened that infinity
times 0 became infinite.
It is possible, however, that as 'h' approaches 0, it may
happen that 'h' approaches 0 fast enough, so that we do get
a finite area.
To show you this, let's just change the problem slightly.
Instead of taking 'y' equals '1 over 'x squared'', let's
take 'y' equals '1 over the 'square root of x''.
The same problem, and by the way, here's the subtlety of
this again.
If you were to sketch 'y' equals '1 over the 'square
root of x'' alongside of 'y' equals '1 over 'x squared''--
in fact, fast enough so that even though we get an infinite
region, it has only a finite area.
In particular, here's what I'm saying now.
Let 'R' be the region bounded above by 'y' equals '1 over
the 'square root of x', below by the x-axis.
On the left by 'x' equals 'h' and on the right
by 'x' equals 1.
Again, since the only place that '1 over the 'square root
of x'' has an infinite discontinuity is when 'x' is
0, and since 'h' is greater than 0 here, we have a
continuous integrand.
The area of the region 'R' therefore is given by what?
Any function whose derivative is '1 over the 'square root of
x'' evaluated between 'h' and 1.
Again, sparing you the details.
Observe that if you differentiate twice 'x to the
1/2', the 1/2 and the 2 cancel and you get '1 over the
'square root of x''.
In other words, 2 square root of 'x' is the function whose
derivative is '1 over the 'square root of x''.
If I now evaluate that between 1 and 'h', I get 2 minus 2
'square root of h'.
If I now take the limit of 'A sub R' as 'h' approaches 0,
notice that what happens here is that as 'h' approaches 0,
so does the square root of 'h'.
And the area turns out to be 2 in the limit.
In other words, the area of the region 'R' in this
particular case, is also a function of 'h'.
But the part that depends on 'h' goes to 0
as 'h' goes to 0.
In fact, notice in this particular case, and why I
couldn't have started with this example is that if I took
this example and you did it the incorrect way, in other
words, if you failed to notice that '1 over the 'square root
of x'' was discontinuous at 'x' equals 0, and you just did
this problem mechanically, and evaluated this between 0 and
1, you would have got the right answer.
And the reason that you would have got the right answer, is
that in the limit process, notice here that the part of
the answer that depends on 'h' does actually
go to 0 in the limit.
At any rate, using all of this as motivation, we come to a
new piece of terminology that we should define.
Namely, if 'f' is infinite at 'x' equals 'c', where 'c' is
someplace in the interval from 'a' to 'b', then the improper
integral 'a' to 'b', ''f of x' dx' is called convergent if
the particular limit that we talked about previously in the
definition of how you compute integral from 'a' to 'b', ''f
of x' dx', if that particular limit exists, meaning it's a
finite number, then we call the integral a convergent
improper integral.
On the other hand, meaning what?
If this limit doesn't exist, if for example, the limit is
infinite, then we call the integral divergent.
In other words, in our first example, the
integral was divergent.
In the second example, the integral was convergent.
By the way, it's rather interesting to point out too--
I shouldn't say it's rather interesting.
It's just my excuse of I don't know of any other way of
motivating improper integrals of the second kind.
But the thing that's worth observing is this.
When we evaluated the area under the curve here from 0 to
1, we elected to pick strips like this.
Remember this is why we got into that infinite
discontinuity; we picked out strips to look like this.
The question that comes up is, why couldn't we have picked
our strips to be horizontal?
In other words, if we had in terms of say, inverse
functions, inverted the role of 'x' and 'y', why couldn't
we have computed our area by picking strips like this and
adding them all up from 1 to 'b', and then taking the limit
as 'b' went to infinity?
In other words, if I wanted to compute the area of this
region using horizontal strips, I would have had what?
I would have had the area of the region 'R' is the integral
from 1 to 'b'.
And remember, if 'y' equals '1 over 'x squared'', 'x' is '1
over the 'square root of y''.
Therefore, the area of the region 'R' is the interval
from 1 to 'b', 'dy' over the square root of 'y'.
Notice that the square root of 'y' is certainly continuous.
'1 over the 'square root of y'' is
continuous in this interval.
At any rate, I could then have evaluated this integrand here
and taken the limit as 'b' approached infinity.
And by the way, the abbreviation for writing the
limit of the integral 1 to 'b' as 'b' approaches infinity, is
to simply write integral from 1 to infinity 'dy' over the
square root of 'y'.
And this is all this thing means.
For example, in this particular case, notice that
as 'b' goes to infinity, so does the square root of 'b'.
Therefore, 2 'square root of b' minus 2 goes to infinity as
'b' approaches infinity.
And we find by a second method that the area of
our region is infinite.
And again, we have another kind of improper integral.
But structurally, this improper integral is
completely different from the improper
integral that we had before.
Namely, before we had an improper integral where the
integrand became infinite, even though the limits of
integration stayed finite.
Notice what happens in this case.
In this particular case, notice that the integrand
stays finite.
It's the limits of integration that become infinite.
In other words, this leads to our next definition of a new
type of improper integral.
Namely, the integral say, from 'a' to infinity ''f of x' dx'.
Whereby this we mean the abbreviation limit as 'b'
approaches infinity, integral from 'a' to 'b', ''f of x'
dx', where 'f' is continuous in this entire range.
In other words, for 'x' greater than or equal to 'a'.
That type of an integral is called an improper integral of
the second kind.
In other words, in the first kind, the integrand becomes
infinite, but the limits of integration are finite.
In the second kind, the integrand stays finite, but
the limits of integration take on an infinite range.
And the important point is that these two are very
closely connected.
In other words, in terms of the example that I just showed
you, I wanted you to see how you can get from an integral
of the first kind to an improper integral of the
second kind just by replacing your vertical strips by
horizontal strips.
In fact, in terms of my first example over here notice that
indeed, '1 over 'x squared'' and '1 over the 'square root
of x'', where 'x' is at least as big as 0, are inverses.
By the way, the reason I say 'x' is, in fact, bigger than
0, otherwise I'll have a 0 denominator here.
The reason I point this out is that if you don't presuppose
that x is positive, remember, the square root function or
the squaring function is not 1:1, so I have to be very
careful when I talk about inverse functions.
The thing I want to see however is, the graph of 'y'
equals '1 over 'x squared'' is the inverse of the graph 'y'
equals '1 over the 'square root of x''.
In other words, essentially, by interchanging the role of
the x- and y-axes, you go from one graph to the other.
You see, in particular, the integral 1 to infinity, 'dx'
over 'x squared'.
Namely, finding the area of this particular region is the
inverse of finding the area of this particular region.
In other words, notice that 'y' equals '1 over 'x
squared'' behaves for large values of 'x' the same as 'y'
equals '1 over the 'square root of x'' behaves for small
parts of the values of 'x'.
Again, let me point out that much of this will be done much
more hard core in our learning exercises and in the reading
material and the like.
And so I pass over some of this in a fairly quick way.
But what I want to make sure is clear before we begin the
exercises and the reading material is that we have a
good idea as to what improper integrals mean.
At any rate, continuing on this way, what do I mean by
the integral from 1 to infinity,
'dx' over 'x squared'?
Well, it's an improper integral of a second type
because the integrand is finite between 1 and infinity.
The limits of integration span an infinite space over here.
At any rate, it's what?
The limit as 'b' approaches infinity, integral from 1 to
'b', 'dx' over 'x squared'.
At any rate, what is the integral
of '1 over 'x squared''.
It's minus '1/x'.
If I evaluate that that's minus ''1 over b' plus 1'.
And if I now take the limit as 'b' approaches infinity that
answer is 1.
In other words, what this means
pictorially is the following.
If I look at the area of this region 'R' for any value of
'b' whatsoever, that area is equal to 1 minus '1/b'.
In other words, no matter how big 'b' becomes, the area of
this region 'R' can never be as big as one unit.
And in the limit, as 'b' goes out as far as we wish, what
we're really saying is what?
That the area of this region 'R' can be made arbitrarily
close to 1 just by choosing 'b' to be arbitrarily large.
And by the way, this you see leads to an interesting
observation.
Namely, at this end of the spectrum, the curve was not
approaching the y-axis fast enough to make
this integral finite.
Remember, the integral from 0 to 1, 'dx' over 'x squared'
was infinite.
However, for large values of 'x', the curve does approach
the x-axis fast enough, so that not only is the enclosed
area finite, it can't even be bigger than 1.
I thought that might be an interesting example for you to
think about for a while.
Another type of interesting example worth thinking about
for a while is this second example.
Let's take the region 'R' to be bounded above by 'y' equals
'1/x', on the left by 'x' equals 1, on the right by 'x'
equals 'b', and below by the x-axis.
And let's compute the area of the region 'R'.
Again, the area of the region 'R' is a definite integral
from 1 to 'b', 'dx' over 'x'.
And that's equal to the natural log of 'b'.
Namely, this integral is log absolute value of 'x'.
Log absolute value of 'b' is just 'log b'.
Log 1 is 0.
So the area of the region 'R' is 'log b'.
As 'b' increases without bound, its log increases
without bound, we find that the area of the
region 'R' is infinite.
In fact, another way of saying this is what?
This is the integral 1 to infinity 'dx' over 'x'.
And this is, therefore, what?
A divergent improper integral of the second type.
All right, so far so good at any rate.
Let me review our volumes of revolution and rotation.
Let's take the region 'R' and rotate it about the x-axis.
If we rotate 'R' about the x-axis, remember a volume of
revolution is just pi 'y squared' 'dx' from 1 to 'b'.
Well, my 'y' is '1/x'.
That's '1 over x squared'.
The integral of '1 over x squared' is minus '1/x'.
Notice then as before, the volume when I rotate 'R' about
the x-axis is just pi times '1 minus '1/b''.
In other words, what this say is as 'b' gets very, very
large, so does 'R'.
Yet, if I rotate 'R' about the x-axis, no matter how big 'b'
is the volume is just pi times '1 minus '1/b''.
As 'b' approaches infinity, this goes to 0 and my volume
is just pi.
In other words, this area gets infinitely large.
Yet, the volume generated by rotating that
area remains finite.
Again, another idiosyncrasy of working with improper
integrals and infinite regions.
You've got to be very, very careful about how rapidly
something approaches 0 or infinity because infinity
times 0 is indeterminate.
In other words, here is a very important observation, an
infinite area can enclose or can generate a finite volume.
Be very, very careful in dealing
with improper integrals.
And by the way, let me make one computational aside.
In trying to determine whether a particular improper integral
is convergent or not, we do not have to be able to compute
the limit itself.
I mention this because it's very important.
Sometime you'll be given an integral which you don't know
how to integrate directly.
A typical example that usually comes up, integral ''e to the
minus 'x squared' dx', say between 1 and infinity.
And you want to know whether this converges or not.
You don't care what the limit is because once you know it
converges, you can approximate it to as great a degree of
accuracy as you wish.
So the question is, does this converge or doesn't it?
And again, the answer is, let's see what happens on this
particular range, for example.
In other words, we know, for example, that if 'x' is
greater than or equal to 1 for numbers in magnitude at least
as big as 1, the square exceeds the number.
In particular by the way, if 'x squared' exceeds 'x', minus
'x squared' cannot exceed minus 'x'.
In other words, on this particular interval that we're
dealing with, say from 1 to 'b', as 'b' approaches
infinity, 'e to the minus 'x squared'' is
less than minus 'x'.
Therefore, because the exponential function is 1:1,
''e to the minus 'x squared' dx' from 1 to 'b' cannot
exceed the integral from 1 to 'b', ''e to the minus x' dx'.
In other words, since this exponent is less than this
exponent, this integral is less than this one.
However, it turns out that we know how to evaluate this one.
How do we integrate 'e to the minus x'?
It's just minus 'e to the minus x'.
And if we evaluate that between 1 and 'b', we find
that we get '1/e' minus '1 over 'e to the b'' power.
'b' is some positive number.
This thing here is less than infinity.
In fact, as 'b' approaches infinity, this approaches 0,
and the limiting value is '1/e'.
In other words, what we now know is, is that whatever this
improper integral is, it cannot exceed '1/e' even
though we don't know what the exact answer is.
Pictorially, you see what happens over here is that the
curve which I've drawn in the accentuated chalk, this curve
is 'y' equals 'e to the minus 'x squared''.
The light curve is 'y' equals 'e to the minus x'.
Notice that these two curves crisscross when 'x' equals 1.
And all we're saying is that since the white curve chops
off a finite area and the accentuated curve, the dark
curve is inside the white one, certainly the area enclosed by
the black curve cannot exceed that of the white curve.
In other words, if this region here approaches a finite value
as 'x' goes to infinity, so must the other region.
And this is essentially the theory
behind improper integrals.
In closing, there is one thing I would like
to say about this.
It's a short summary, but here's the whole idea.
It may be difficult to evaluate improper integrals of
a second kind.
But in the certain manner of
speaking, they're not dangerous.
In what manner of speaking?
Well, when you see the limits on the integral sign like a to
infinity, or minus infinity to 'b', or minus infinity to
infinity, you're on the lookout.
You're on the lookout to be careful about
something going wrong.
There's something about the symbol infinity, which
hopefully strikes a certain fear or respect in your minds
when you work mathematically.
See, we have a warning to be ware in this case.
However, the dangerous part is that when you're given an
improper integral of the first type, and I don't know the
best way of saying this other than to say perhaps, that
mathematics has no built-in burglar alarms.
What I mean by that is if you're supposed to multiply 5
and 3 to get the right answer to a problem, and instead you
add 5 and 3, you're going to get 8 for the answer even
though it's incorrect.
There's not going to be a buzzer that goes off and says,
please do not add these two numbers.
In other words, if you go ahead over here and you forget
that 'f of x' may be infinite and you go ahead and integrate
this using the first fundamental theorem, you're
going to get an answer just like we did in our beginning
exercise at the beginning of the lecture.
It happened to be the wrong answer.
So in other words, the word of warning here is whenever you
see an integral with finite limits of integration, check
the integrand and make sure it doesn't blow up, it doesn't
become infinite.
At any rate, with these words we finish our block on
integration.
And until next time, good bye.
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