Response to the Environment

 

Immune Response–Mechanism

Antibodies in the blood recognize viral antigens and neutralize the virus.

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Antibody/Immunoglobulin Structure

Structure of antibodies-light chain, heavy chain, antigen binding site. Antibodies bind to antigens and neutralize the virus particle.

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Antibody Production

Antibodies must be specific to unknown, foreign particles. Each B cells/plasma cell clone produce and secrete a specific type of antibody.

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Immune Response–Primary and Secondary

Primary response versus secondary response. Secondary response is much faster and stronger due to memory cells from the primary response. This is the basis for vaccines.

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Immunology–Definitions and Clonal Expansion

Definitions of immunoglobulin, antigen, and epitope. External and internal epitopes on antigens can be recognized by antibodies. Recognition of antigen by antibody on the B cell induces the specific B cell to proliferate to produce more specific antibodies.

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Antibody Variability and VDJ Recombination

B cells make different antibodies with the same DNA sequence when various versions of V, D, and J DNA segments combine. Mistakes at the fusion point of the segments also contribute to the variability. Different light chains and heavy chains can combine and the antibody genes are more mutation prone.

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Implications of Antibody Variability

Nonsense rearrangements must be eliminated. Antibody cannot react against native proteins (autoimmune disease). The body selectively stimulates B cells that make antibodies that tightly bind to and neutralizes the antigen.

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Humoral and Cellular Immunity

Humoral immunity produces soluble antibody molecules and cellular immunity uses cytotoxic T cells to recognize and kill infected cells.

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Macrophage and T Helper Cells I and II

Macrophage internalizes foreign particles, presents small peptides on their surfaces, and induce production of specific T helper cells. Use example of bazaar to demonstrate interaction between MHCII of the macrophage and the T cell receptor of the T helper cell.

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T Cell–B Cell Interaction

T helper cells interact with antibodies on the B cell to stimulate it to proliferate. The complex immune system activation involving macrophage, T cell, and B cell reduces the chance of autoimmunity.

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Neuron Structure

Different types of receptor neurons. Parts of an individual neuron - cell body, axon, axon hillock, nerve terminals, synapses.

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Neurobiology–Introduction

Questions that arise in neurobiology.

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Neurobiology–Electrical Signals

Electrical and concentration gradients of ions are responsible for the action potential. Briefly mentions action potential, deplorization and repolarization.

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Neurobiology–Concentration Gradients and Membrane Proteins

Concentration gradients of Na+, K+, and Ca++ across the axon membrane are established by ion pumps embedded in the membrane. Energy driven pumps establish an electrical, concentration equilibrium that creates the resting potential at -70mV.

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Action Potential Mechanism

Voltage-gated Na+ and K+ ion channels create the action potential by depolarizing and repolarizing the membrane as ions move across the membrane based on the electrical gradients.

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Propagating Action Potential

Action potential is propagated along the axon by locally affecting potential of nearby membrane. Myelin sheathes made by Schwann cells allow faster transmission of the action potential.

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Synaptic Transmission

In the pre-synaptic cell, action potential at the nerve terminal induces Ca++ to enter the cell, which helps release of neurotransmitters into the synapse.

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Post-Synaptic Cell / Muscle-Nerve Synapse

Neurotransmitters bind to the ligand-gated Na+ ion channels on the post-synaptic cell and induces action potentials. Neurotransmitters are degraded when no longer needed.

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Nerve–Nerve Synapse

Nerves can positively or negatively affect the post-synaptic cell. Information from thousands of nerve terminals are integrated at the axon hillock to produce a all-or-nothing action potential response.

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Neural Circuitry

Circuitry between sensory neuron, motor neuron, intermediate neurons, and muscle cell. The circuitry allow parts of the body to be coordinated when responding to the same stimulus.

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Viral Infections and Vaccines

Life cycle and infection of the polio virus. Jenner and his discovery of vaccine for polio. Vaccines can be made from heat attenuated or formaldehyde treated polio viruses.

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AIDS and HIV

History of AIDS, discovery of HIV, life cycle, infection, and inhibitors of HIV.

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Autotrophs and Heterotrophs

Definition, origin, examples, and comparison. Heterotrophs such as humans cannot make certain amino acids and other essential compounds.

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Adaptive Immune System

Overview and the four major characteristics of adaptive immunity - diversity, specificity, avoid self-recognition, and memory.

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Humoral Versus Cellular Immunity

Comparison of the two types of immunity - characteristics, and cells and molecules involved.

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Antibodies and VDJ Recombination

Structure, function, complementarity, and production. 3D molecular image. One plasma cell produces one antibody. Random combinations of various V, D, and J segments of the DNA results in many combinations that encodes different antibody proteins.

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Clonal Selection, Plasma and Memory Cells

B cells display their antibody on the surface. Tight binding between the antibody and antigen stimulate the B cell to divide. Division gives rise to plamsa cells that produce antibodies, and memory cells, which are responsible for a faster secondary immune response.

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Pathogen Elimination

Mechanisms and cells used to destroy pathogens - bacteria or virus.

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T Cells

T cells that recognize foreign peptides displayed by other cells on their major histocompatibility complex (MHC). Cytotoxic T cells kill infected cells; helper T cells activate B cells.

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Tolerance of Self Peptides

Education of immune cells in the thymus. All cells that react to self peptides are killed. Examples of autoimmunity.

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Humoral Immunology–Summary

Structure, diversity, and function of antibodies. Production of antibodies through VDJ recombination and the cell types involved. Clonal expansion, and primary and secondary immune responses.

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AIDS and HIV–Summary

Summary of history of AIDS, consequences, and symptoms. Life cycle and infection by HIV and compromised immune system.

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Virus and Immune Response

Immune response to viral infections and how viruses try to evade the system.

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Antibodies and Bcells–Practice

Antibodies as transmembrane receptors that induce B cell proliferation post infection. Memory B cells responsible for rapid second immune response.

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Neuron and Action Potential

Parts and function of the neuron. Ion channels, their state (open, closed, inactivated), and contribution to the action potential.

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Neurotransmitters

Secretion, function, and reduction of neurotransmitters in the synapse.

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Neurology–Ions and Channels

The concentrations of ions and types of channels responsible for the resting potential.

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Neurology–Action Potential and Channel Permeability

Channels permeability and ion movement during the action potential.

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Neurology–Resting Potential

Define the resting potential and how it is maintained in a neuron.

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Neurology–Channel States and Mutants

States of various channels during an action potential and the effect of defective mutant channels on the shape of an action potential.

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Neurology–Synapse and Neurotransmitters

The process of transmitting an action potential from one neuron to the next. Ligands and receptors involved in the process and the affect of receptor up-regulation.

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Immunology–MHCI and MHCII

Cells that contain MHCI and MHCII and the peptides presented by the MHC molecules.

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Immunology–VDJ Recombination

Quantitative calculation of the result of VDJ recombination that creates antibodies, and B and T cell receptors.

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Immunology–Tcell Selection

Fate of immature and mature T cells that recognize foreign and self antigens.

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Antibody Structure and Diversity

Identifying antibody structures and ways to generate diversity.

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Immune Response–Practice I and II

Humoral and cellular immune responses involving B cells, T cells, and macrophage. Functions of various molecules. Purpose and function of vaccines.

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HIV

Comprehensive review of the structure, life cycle, and infection of the human immunodeficiency virus.

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Immunology Review

Fill in the blank questions on the basics of immunology - cell types, molecules, humoral response and cellular response.

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Neurobiology–Practice I, II and III

Action potential, voltage, and various states of ion pumps and channels. Neurotransmitters and chemical synapse.

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Antibody Gene and Variability

Diagram for different parts of a gene encoding an antibody showing variation produced by VDJ DNA rearrangement and alternative splicing. Antibody structure and memory B cell.

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Immunization

Cells and molecules involved in an immune response to viral infection. Pros and cons of vaccinating against chickenpox.

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Antibody–Antigen Interactions

Biochemical interactions between antibody and antigen, and DNA mutations that strengthen or weaken these interactions.

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Immunology

Cell types, molecules, and functions of innate, humoral, and cellular immunity.

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Vaccine

Production and use of vaccine. Causes of antibody diversity.

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Action Potential

Ion channels involved in the action potential and changes in the potential across the axon membrane. Signal transmission at the synapse between two neurons.

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Immune System–Cells

True or false questions about functions of cells in the immune system. Production of antibodies against protein from a different species.

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